Another study demonstrated the design features of the trehalose

Another study demonstrated the design features of the trehalose pathway with controlled comparisons that identified the role of every regulatory signal at the metabolic level, as well as the observed gene expression patterns [44]. Sorribas and his group refined these types of analyses with sophisticated optimization methods that explained why the observed gene expression patterns are metabolically superior to a priori imaginable alternatives [45,46,47,52]. These types of studies have shown that it is indeed possible Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to infer, with a fairly good degree of confidence, the changes in metabolic states from gene expression

or, conversely, the changes in expression profiles from a metabolic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical model and a set of established physiological criteria based on experimental information. Earlier studies Transferase activity relied on a possibly significant simplifying assumption, namely that there is a linear correlation between the changes in transcriptomic and proteomic profiles. Maybe more importantly, these approaches Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical ignored the direct temperature effects on enzyme

catalysis. A more recent model [28] takes these aspects into account. In particular, this work joins two dynamic sub-models that represent different time scales and shows that canonical models, using power-law functions (as in Equations (1) and (2)), can Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical be constructed from experimental data in a top-down manner. The first sub-model simulates the time-dependent protein profiles from the network of interactions between transcripts and proteins, while the second sub-model is a

metabolic model that is capable of simulating time-dependent metabolic profiles based on the amounts of enzymes catalyzing each step, which are supplied from the first sub-model. The main focus of this joint model is the enormous accumulation of trehalose in response to elevated temperature. Interestingly, targeted experimental analyses demonstrated that Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical naïve and heat-adapted cells respond in a qualitatively similar, but quantitatively very different manner. In particular, when cells are exposed to heat during their early exponential growth phase, later heat stress leads to almost ten times the amount of accumulated trehalose in comparison Phosphatidylinositol diacylglycerol-lyase to naïve cells [28]. To analyze this phenomenon, we set up a model in the following fashion. We allowed the naïve and heat adapted cells to express different amounts of the enzymes that catalyze each metabolic step in the trehalose pathway. This strategy accounted for the fact that cells exposed to heat during growth had the opportunity to increase gene expression and thereby the abundance of pertinent mRNAs and proteins. Our experimental time series data even allowed us to quantify these changes numerically.

5 In addition, the skin was prepared and the skin resistance was

5 In addition, the skin was prepared and the skin resistance was decreased to lower than 5 kilo-ohms. Prior to processing the raw EMG data, a

customized quality control program in conjunction with visual inspection was used on all the channels in order to detect and eliminate the possible contamination of the EMG signal by heartbeat and other artifacts. The EMG data were amplified Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and fully rectified with a band-pass filter at 5-500 Hz and then sampled at 1000 Hz. Thereafter, the data were recorded onto a hard disk and transferred to floppy disks for offline processing. The electrode sites were validated using manual muscle testing and doing maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) to isolate each instance of muscle activation and decrease cross-talk.15 Each channel had an isolated ground electrode in order to minimize the noise, and the electrodes were well taped in order to prevent the artifact. To AP24534 in vivo ensure a stable temperature and impedance, no recording was made within 10 minutes Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of electrode placement. The subjects were asked to relax completely in the supine position, and the noise of the channels was kept at less than 5 kilo-ohms. Data Collection Each subject performed three different trials in order that the mean of the maximal effort of the target muscle could be determined. To evaluate MVC for the TrA,

all the subjects were asked Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to be in the crook-lying position with flexed knees, flat feet, and hips flexed to 70° (as measured with a goniometer). Then, they were instructed to hollow in and elevate their umbilicus toward

the spine and maintain this position for 5 seconds. The exercise performance was closely monitored to ensure that the subjects were not tilting the pelvis Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical backward or inhaling and elevating the rib cage to make the abdomen look flat. The subjects performed three successive trials of each exercise with a short rest of approximately one minute between each trial to prevent fatigue. In order to measure the MVC of IO muscles in the sitting position, the hips and the chest were fixed with two straps and the subjects were asked to produce maximal rotation Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical without flexion toward right and left sides. Three trials of this exercise were subsequently performed. A pause of one minute was allowed between the trials.15 The MVC of multifidus muscles in the prone position was until determined by fixing the lower extremities and the chest with two straps. The subjects performed maximal trunk extension against resistance three times. A one-minute pause was also allowed between the trials.21 After the measurement of MVC, all the subjects performed the four-point kneeling exercise. Correct performance of the exercise was ensured by providing the subjects with appropriate training in two sessions. These exercises were performed in the quadruped position, with the movements of the extremities being executed in a random sequence.

To reduce these anticancer drug resistances broader targeting and

To reduce these anticancer drug resistances broader targeting and non-MDR affecting small molecule agents are considered in combination with antibody-based biologics. 2.2.2. Small Molecule Tyrosine Kinase Receptor Inhibitor-Based Combination Regimen Lapatinib is a small molecule dual tyrosine kinase receptor inhibitor

of EGFR and HER2 that, like TRZ, has demonstrated a significant improvement in overall survival when added to the treatment of HER2-positive metastatic breast cancer [53]. The benefit of lapatinib combined with chemotherapeutic agents (Table 2) as compared to chemotherapeutic agents alone was seen in patients with progressive, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical HER2-overexpressing metastatic breast cancer who were previously treated with an anthracycline, a taxane, and TRZ. Cameron et al. reported that patients treated with Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical combination of lapatinib and capecitabine showed improved overall survival time of 75 weeks compared to that of 64.7 weeks in the patients treated with capecitabine [45]. However due to the broad selectivity of lapatinib, the primary observed toxicities of lapatinib are nonspecific such as diarrhea, acneiform skin rash, nausea, and pruritus [47]. Another strategy for targeting VEGF and tumor angiogenesis is the use of small molecule tyrosine kinase receptor inhibitors that target Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the VEGF receptor (VEGFR), including sunitinib,

sorafenib, axitinib, and pazopanib. Gianni et al. reported improved response rate of 72% with the docetaxel plus sunitinib Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical combination

compared to 11% with sunitinib monotherapy. Most common side effects of sunitinib are anorexia, fatigue, mucositis, diarrhea, and nausea. However, the combination was well tolerated and did not significantly worsen the toxicity associated with the chemotherapy alone [48]. Although these agents, alone or in combination with chemotherapy and/or other biologics, hold great promise, to date they have failed to demonstrate significant activity in metastatic breast cancer [54, 55]. Most small molecule tyrosine kinase Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical receptor inhibitors have dose-related toxicity such as hepatotoxicity compared to monoclonal antibody therapy mainly due to less selective distribution. 2.2.3. Poly(Adenosine Diphosphate-Ribose) Polymerase Inhibitor-Based Regimen Poly(adenosine diphosphate-ribose) polymerase (PARP) CYTH4 is a DNA-binding protein involved in detection and repair of DNA strand breaks [56]. PARP inhibitors are a new and exciting class of agents to treat triple-negative and BRCA-mutated breast cancer [57]. Cancers defective in DNA repair, specifically cancers with mutations in the breast cancer associated BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes and triple-negative breast cancer (which shares molecular and pathologic CHIR-98014 research buy features with BRCA1-related breast cancers) appear to be particularly sensitive to inhibition of PARP-1 [58].

Structural

neuroimaging with either a noncontrast CT or M

Structural

neuroimaging with either a noncontrast CT or MRI scan in the routine initial evaluation of patients with dementia is appropriate. Linear or volumetric MRI or CT measurement strategies for the diagnosis of AD are not. recommended for routine use at this time. For patients with suspected dementia, SPECT cannot be recommended for routine use in either initial or differential diagnosis, as it has not been demonstrated to be superior to clinical criteria. PET imaging is Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical not recommended for routine use in the diagnostic evaluation of dementia at this time. The purpose of this article is to www.selleckchem.com/products/lonafarnib-sch66336.html review the neuroimaging literature and suggest avenues of promising research for AD diagnostics. While we agree with the Academy’s recommendation

against routine neuroimaging in all cases, we believe that neuroimaging offers unique capabilities for this purpose, which may be extremely useful in some contexts. As mentioned recently by Hogan and McKeith,11 the routine use of structural neuroimaging may be justifiable merely to detect the 5% of patients Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical with clinically unsuspected structural lesions. In addition, we point out here a similarly infrequent, but important, need for functional imaging. Below we will analyze the literature with the aim of detecting these specific applications. Methods We performed a computerized Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical search of the indexed medical literature (August 1998-August 2001) through Medline® using the following medical subheading (MeSH) terms: Alzheimer Disease/ AND Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Diagnostic Imaging/ AND Sensitivity/ AND Specificity/. This search produced 13 citations that directly

reported sensitivity and specificity in diagnosing or distinguishing AD from either normal or other diseased states (including non-AD dementia or other mental illness). We additionally searched the literature for data on the sensitivity and specificity Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of clinically based assessments, obtaining 9 studies for comparison. We categorized the results of each report, according to the modality (eg, clinical, CT, MRI, SPECT, or PET), the strategy (measured or interpreted), and comparison group (normal controls or patients with other dementia types). Studies reporting sensitivity and specificity data for individual measures (eg, entorhinal cortex blood flow or sensorimotor cortex blood flow) were listed as separate entries. We constructed a database Levetiracetam of these multiple criteria. Early in the analysis, we encountered a complication in comparing clinical evaluation against ncuroimaging. The ultimate diagnosis of AD is a neuropathological one. Clinical diagnosis is usually validated against clinical follow-up, or against postmortem neuropathological diagnosis. Neuroimaging studies have usually been validated against clinical diagnosis. This introduces difficulty into interpretation of the comparison, since there is a variable error associated with the clinical diagnosis.

” Nevertheless, atypical antipsychotics are recommended as first-

” Nevertheless, atypical antipsychotics are recommended as first-choice treatment for both first- and multiple-episode schizophrenia18-19 or for first-episode schizophrenia preferentially.20 However, independent,

long-term studies in first-episode patients substantiating these recommendations are lacking21-22 or are still under way, such as the Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness (CATIE) trial in the US23 and the EUropean First Episode Schizophrenia Trial (BMS-907351 mw EUFEST) study in Europe;24 Beyond this uncertainty regarding the best kind of antipsychotic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical treatment for the special group of first-episode patients, it is furthermore unclear how long treatment should be continued after cessation of the first, acute phase.25-26 Published guidelines recommend treatment durations of minimum 1 year;27-28 Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the appropriate duration of further treatment in case of symptom remission, however, has not been adequately specified. In order to contribute to these open questions, a comprehensive acute and long-term treatment, study in patients with first-episode schizophrenia is currently been conducted in up to 13

German university hospitals within the GRNS.29 The study comprises a prospective doubleblind, randomized, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical parallel-group comparison of risperidone as a new-generation antipsychotic with halopcridol as a conventional antipsychotic. Both drugs are administered in rather low daily dosages of 2 to 8 mg per day during the 8 weeks of acute treatment, and thereafter in a reduced dosage-where possiblc-of Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical 2 to 4 mg per day during a 2-year long-term treatment period. To investigate the necessary duration of long-term treatment in first-episode patients, patients completing the first treatment year without, relapse are randomly

allocated to either maintenance Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical treatment, or stepwise drug discontinuation in the second treatment year. In case of impending re-exacerbations, prodrome-based early intervention, either by means of resumption or augmentation of neuroleptic treatment (depending on the basic treatment strategy of discontinuation or maintenance treatment) or by means of ALOX15 treatment/additional treatment, with the benzodiazepine lorazepam is applied in the second treatment year to prevent relapses. This randomized, double-blind comparison shall contribute to the open question of whether prodromes are unspecific consequences of stress experience, treatable with benzodiazepines, or have to be regarded as more specific, prepsychotic symptoms requiring neuroleptic treatment.30 Preliminary findings so far suggest that the treatment, with low dosages of antipsychotics is feasible and effective, and leads to a significant improvement, in positive, negative, and prodromal symptoms in first-episode schizophrenia patients. None of the patients has fulfilled the criteria for relapse within the first year of treatment.

Hartog calls this regime of historicity “presentism” and defines

Hartog calls this regime of historicity “presentism” and defines it as an invasion of the present into the realms of the past and future. For instance, Hartog notes that the conception of the past as a bygone time has recently been replaced by that of memory, which revitalizes in the present what would hitherto have been considered as dead or obsolete. Memory thus

appears as a “presentist Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical instrument,” allowing for a “presentist use of the past.” Hartog also points to the importance given recently to the notion of heritage, which makes traces of the past necessary components of current individual and collective identities. As for the extension of the present into the future, the selleck chemicals historian notes that our societies conceive of the time to come as a source of uncertainty and anguish. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical The future must be prepared now, in the present, in order to prevent potential environmental, political, health, and other catastrophes from occurring. According to Hartog, this is evident in the emergence of the principle of responsibility and the precautionary principle, which

state, respectively, that the living are responsible for handing over to future generations a world in which Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical life will be decent, and that an action should not be undertaken if it is deemed to have serious potential consequences, notably in the long run. For the French historian, presentism differs significantly from previous temporal orders, namely futurism, eschatologism, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and pastism (mentioned here in reverse chronological order). Futurism, which Hartog dates roughly between the French revolution (1789) and the fall of the Berlin Wall (1989), emphasized the present as a step toward the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical future; time was seen as a movement of uninterrupted improvement, with an ever-increasing efficiency of technologies and a continuous economic growth. It was an era marked by the idea

of progress and an orientation toward the future. Before the advent of futurism, eschatologism was the dominant temporal order, according to Hartog. It envisaged time above all as a process of salvation. In his theory, the resurrection of Christ marks the beginning of the process—being a fixed, past event, it acts as one of the delimitations of time—which needs to be completed, and this supposedly occurs through the second coming of Christ (parousia), or Judgement Day—representing the other delimitation European Heart Journal of time. In this regime of historicity, the present acts as an in-between stage; it is simultaneously a time of reminiscence about salvation and a time for the expectation of eternal life. “Past, present and future are articulated on the backdrop of eternity,” as Hartog writes (p 75). Finally, pastism, which the historian dates back to ancient times, conceived of the present as the reverberation of a mythical past.

Outcomes were compared on an intent-to-treat basis using propens

Outcomes were compared on an intent-to-treat basis using propensity score matching. Median cardiopulmonary bypass time was 42 minutes longer for robotic than for complete sternotomy, 39 minutes longer than partial sternotomy, and 11 minutes longer than right mini-anterolateral thoracotomy (P < 0.0001). There were no in-hospital deaths in any group, and neurologic, pulmonary, and renal complications were similar among groups (P > 0.1). Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical The robotic group had the lowest occurrences of atrial fibrillation and pleural effusion,

contributing to the shortest hospital stay (median 4.2 days); 1.0, 1.6, and 0.9 days shorter than for complete sternotomy, partial sternotomy, and right mini-anterolateral thoracotomy (all P < 0.001), respectively. Similar reductions in length of stay were seen at the University of Pennsylvania in a comparison of 39 patients who underwent sternotomy and mitral valve repair, or replacement, with 26 patients who underwent robotically assisted mitral valve repair or replacement.13 Patients who underwent Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical robotic-assisted surgery experienced shorter mean duration of postoperative hospitalization (7.1

versus 10.6 days; P = 0.04), despite longer cross-clamp Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and bypass times (110 versus 151 minutes, P = 0.0015; 162 versus 239 minutes, P = 0.001, respectively). Mean packed red blood cell transfusion was also lower among patients who underwent robotic-assisted mitral valve surgery (5.0 versus 2.8 units, P = 0.04). Today, most robot-assisted mitral valve repairs are accomplished either through a 3–4-cm right anterolateral mini-thoracotomy or a 2-cm lateral Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical working port. The articulating EndoWrist™ (Intuitive Surgical, Sunnyvale, CA, USA) instruments and dynamic left atrial retractor allow buy MLN0128 console surgeons to employ Carpentier’s and others’ “toolbox” of repair techniques. Our institution has performed over

800 robotic mitral valve repairs. Results have been published for the first 540 patients.14 Of these, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical 454 patients underwent a lone mitral repair, and 86 had Cell press a concomitant atrial fibrillation ablation. The average cardiopulmonary bypass and cross-clamp times were 153 and 116 minutes, respectively, in the lone mitral repair patients. The group operative mortality was 0.4%. The mean follow-up period was 351 days (15–946 days), and 2.9% of patients required a reoperation for a failed repair. The cardiopulmonary bypass and arrest times have improved with on-going experience. In the first FDA trial, the average cross-clamp time was 150 minutes.10 In the second multicenter FDA trial, the average cross-clamp time fell to 126 minutes, and there was little variation in operative time between centers.11 We use topographic valve models, derived from intra-operative high-quality three-dimensional transesophageal echocardiography images to plan a successful repair.

1,2 Higher-order EF, such as problem solving and planning, typica

1,2 Higher-order EF, such as problem solving and planning, typically builds upon a combination of these three components. As a regulatory capacity, EF is central to a range of normal and

abnormal behavior particularly relevant for psychiatric illness, and has been suggested to impact psychiatric functioning Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical through involvement in, and overlap with, emotional regulation (ER) processes. Indeed, both EF and ER deficits are pervasive throughout psychiatric disorders, to varying degrees of severity and specificity, and hence may be of significant transdiagnostic importance. There is evidence that the neural circuitry that supports EF and ER is largely overlapping. In this review we will focus specifically on the contribution of circuit abnormalities relevant to Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical EF and ER to psychiatric disorders. We restrict our focus to patients aged 60 and below to insure that the relationship of cognitive deficits to psychiatric disorders is not primarily due to age-related changes in cognition. We will begin with

an overview of the neural systems underlying EF and ER, followed by a description of how deficits in these systems, or their behavioral output, subserve a range Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of psychiatric disorders. Finally, we will examine the relationship between EF and ER capacities and current treatments, as well as avenues for Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical novel treatments through a neurobiological understanding of EF and ER. Neural systems supporting

EF and ER Cognitive regulation of behavior and emotions is supported by several circuits in the PFC. While the PFC is typically not necessary for the learning or performance of simple tasks, when task demands change, the PFC is required for proper adjustments Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in behavior to maintain accuracy and goal-directed behavior. This capacity of the PFC is conserved across mammalian species.3-5 Viewed this Behavioral and Brain Sciences way, the PFC is CFTR assay responsible for maintaining an internal representation of current goals and modulating activity in brain regions responsible for perception or action in order to flexibly achieve these goals. In order to accomplish this, the PFC must be able to maintain a representation of goals in the face of distraction, update these representations as new information is received through multiple sensory modalities, and provide a feedback signal that can select the neural pathways appropriate for the current task context.6 Within this broad capacity for EF, several more specific subgroupings of functions are possible, commonly considered to be inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility.

Acknowledgments This study was supported by career development aw

Acknowledgments This study was supported by career development awards to M. Huckans (Staff Psychologist and Neuropsychologist)

and J. M. Loftis (Research Scientist) from the Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Health Administration, Office of Research and Development, Clinical Sciences Research and Development. #Go 6983 order keyword# This material is the result of work supported with resources and the use of facilities at the Portland Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Portland, Oregon. The authors thank the study participants and staff at each of the recruitment sites, especially Betsy Zucker and Janice Voukidis. The authors acknowledge Peter Hauser, William Hoffman, Diane Howieson, Daniel Storzbach, and Alexander Stevens for study design consultation. Gray Whelan, graphic designer, assisted with the preparation of Figure 1. All authors read and approved the final contents of the manuscript. Conflict of Interest The authors have read the journal’s policy and have the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical following Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical conflicts: the Department of Veterans Affairs and Oregon Health & Science University (OHSU) own a technology referenced in this research study. A. A. V. has stock

options in Virogenomics/Artielle, a company that has licensed the technology and may have an interest in the results of this study. The Department of Veterans Affairs, OHSU, and J. M. L., A. A. V., and M. H. have rights to royalties from the licensing agreement with Artielle. These potential

Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical conflicts of interest have been reviewed and managed by the Conflict of Interest Committees at the Portland VA Medical Center and OHSU. Funding Information This study was supported by career development awards to M. Huckans (Staff Psychologist and Neuropsychologist) and J. M. Loftis (Research Scientist) from the Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Health Administration, Office of Research and Development, Clinical Sciences Research and Development. Supplementary Information Additional Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Supporting Information may be found in the online version of this article: Table S1 Multi-analyte regression models, including any history of substance dependence as a variable. Click here to view.(22K, docx)
Chemical senses are arguably the oldest and most important sensory modalities in the animal kingdom. The earliest animals on the planet most MycoClean Mycoplasma Removal Kit likely navigated their environments by responding to chemical cues, and even now animals of all phyla rely on some type of chemo-sensation to obtain food, avoid predators, and find mates. Land snails and slugs are highly sensitive to odors and display robust associative conditioning to olfactory cues (Gelperin 1975; Kemenes 1989; Alkon and Nelson 1990; Sahley et al. 1990; Sahley and Crow 1998; Balaban 2002).

Figure ​Figure44 shows the mean data in the STAI-G-State question

Figure ​Figure44 shows the mean data in the STAI-G-State questionnaire in the in the experimental group and the control group divided into the two times of measurement. Figure 4 Mean and standard errors in the STAI-G-State questionnaire

for the experimental group (EG) and the control group (CG) for time of measurement 1 (T1) and time of measurement 2 (T2). STAI-G-Trait The ANOVA revealed no significant main effect for group (F(1, 48) = 1.72) or for time of measurement (F(1, 48) = 2.85). The interaction between group and time of measurement (F(1, 48) = 4.76, P < 0.035) was significant. The mean data in the experimental group decreased from Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the T1 to T2, while the data in the control group increased from T1 to T2. Figure ​Figure55 shows the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical mean data in the STAI-G-Trait questionnaire in the experimental group and the control group divided into the two times of measurement. Figure 5 Mean and standard errors in the STAI-G-Trait questionnaire for the experimental group (EG) and the control group (CG)

for Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical time of measurement 1 (T1) and time of measurement 2 (T2). Discussion The main aim of this pilot study was to investigate for the first time the efficacy of an advanced version of EMDR according an intervention of anxiety. Between two times of measurement, the experimental group received an intervention of 1–2 h with respect to their anxiety with the wingwave method, whereas no intervention was employed to the control group. All participants Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical were asked at both times of measurement to self-generate the emotion of anxiety via the recall of an autobiographical selleck memory. Previous studies have

already demonstrated that the self-generation of an emotion is an appropriate way to induce an emotion like anxiety (e.g., Damasio et al. 2000; Rathschlag and Memmert 2013). We investigated the intensity Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of anxiety, the physical performance under the emotion of anxiety and the state and trait anxiety with the STAI (Laux et al. Nature Reviews Clinical Oncology 1981) for both groups and for both times of measurement. First of all, the results demonstrated that the intensity of anxiety did not differ at T1 between both groups and decreased from T1 to T2 in the experimental group but not in the control group. In this respect, we provided evidence for our hypothesis that the wingwave method can help to decrease the intensity of anxiety concerning to the respective anxious memories and their recall, and to make the recall more difficult. This result is in line with several studies that have found that making eye movements (EMDR) while retrieving visual images of negative autobiographical memories reduces their vividness and emotional intensity (e.g., Smeets et al. 2012). In addition, Engelhard et al.