hepaticus and Helicobacter trogontum, respectively. Molecular analysis has revealed a function for type VI secretion systems of H. hepaticus and H. pullorum, DAPT purchase the Helicobacter mustelae iron urease, and several other functional components of NHPH. In each section of this chapter, new findings on gastric NHPH will first be discussed, followed by those on enterohepatic Helicobacter species. Several reports describe the association between gastric non-H. pylori Helicobacter (NHPH) infections and gastric complaints in human

patients. A 17-year-old man suffering from heartburn was diagnosed with gastric NHPH infection, without further species identification. Histopathologic examination revealed a chronic active gastritis as well as lymphoepithelial lesions [1]. Another study aimed at evaluating the incidence of gastric NHPH infection in dyspeptic Polish children (4–18 years of age) [2]. A prevalence of 0.2% was assessed and histopathology showed that most children suffered from a nodular

chronic gastritis, ABT-888 nmr which was active in half of the cases and sometimes accompanied by the presence of gastric or duodenal ulcers. No clear association with animal contact was found in this study, in contrast to another report describing the presence of Helicobacter suis in a pig veterinarian suffering from general dyspeptic symptoms, reflux esophagitis, and histologically confirmed chronic gastritis [3]. A German study described the first isolation of Helicobacter felis from an infected human, in this case a 14-year-old

girl presenting with persistent epigastric pain and vomiting episodes [4]. The authors succeeded by using their routine Helicobacter pylori isolation protocol. In general, gastric NHPH infections in the patients described in these studies were successfully eradicated using a triple therapy of at least 1 week, consisting of omeprazole or pantoprazole or bismuth salts, amoxicillin, and clarithromycin or metronidazole. For the H. suis-infected pig veterinarian, a mild chronic gastritis was observed upon follow-up gastroscopy [3]. Helicobacter cinaedi has been reported medchemexpress to be associated with bacteremia and cellulitis in an asplenic patient [5] and a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) [6]. Forty-seven cases of H. cinaedi bacteremia experienced at a hospital as nosocomial infection were evaluated retrospectively [7], and 16 cases (34%) showed cutaneous lesions, indicating that the skin lesions can be an early clinical indicator of H. cinaedi bacteremia in the setting of nosocomial infection. Bacteremia cases caused by Helicobacter bilis [8] and Helicobacter canis [9] were also reported in patients with X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA) and common variable immune deficiency, respectively.