The fragments generated maintain and enhance the adhesive properties of full-length OPN by exposing the cryptic RGD (αvβ3, αvβ1, αvβ5, α8β1) and SVVYGLR (α9β1, α4β1, α4β7) domains for integrin-binding (Yokosaki et al., 1999, Yokosaki et al., 2005 and Scatena et al., 2007). The biphasic upregulation of OPN expression (6–48 h and 3–14 days post-venom) correlated with two distinct phases following B. lanceolatus venom-induced muscle injury. The first of these, which corresponded to the early acute inflammatory degenerative phase, was critical for the second stage that

was characterized buy Apoptosis Compound Library by muscle repair and remodeling subsequent to satellite cell activation. Whether the OPN expressed by macrophages and muscle selleck compound fibers 6–48 h post-venom at sites of acute inflammation acted as a chemotactic cytokine and adhesive molecule is not known. However, OPN mediates activities such as phagocytosis and cytokine production by macrophages and other immune cells

( Wang and Denhardt, 2008). These activities are necessary to activate dormant satellite cells, migration and proliferation. Similarly, the second phase of OPN upregulation seen at 3–14 days post-venom correlated temporally with the beginning of myoblasts proliferation, their migration and the subsequent transformation into myotubes (differentiation) and the growth of regenerating myofibers with centrally-located nuclei (maturation phase). In this second phase, which was more pronounced than the first, OPN was produced mainly by myogenic cells, including differentiated cells, and also by fibroblasts and M1 macrophages, as shown by double immunolabeling for CD68/OPN. In a study of muscle regeneration after the injection of cardiotoxin (CTX) from Naja naja atra snake venom, Hirata et al. (2003)

showed that the gene expression for OPN was notably increased at 2 and 4 days after envenoming. These authors suggested that OPN might be an important mediator in the early phase of muscle regeneration following intoxication with CTX. In this study, we also examined many the pattern of myoD and myogenin expression during regeneration correlated this with OPN expression. MyoD is a myogenic transcription factor associated with the early stage of differentiation, whereas myogenin occurs in the late stage (Dedieu et al., 2002 and Holterman and Rudnicki, 2005). However, no myoD immunolabeling was observed in this work; in contrast, myogenin expression increased steadily from 18 h to 7 days post-venom and decreased from 14 days onwards, although its levels were still higher than in the time-matched controls (Fig. 8). That OPN expressed by myoblasts and myotubes at this stage would represent a role in the adhesion of regenerating myotubes to elements of the ECM in order to promote the appropriate conditions for regenerative myogenesis is unknown. However, Pereira et al.