Advances in immunology, molecular biology and, especially, genomics and bioinformatics have made it possible to identify individual antigenic structures through computer-based searches of the pathogen’s genome. This technique is known as ‘reverse vaccinology’ ( Figure 3.5). Starting with the genome of a pathogen, bioinformatics technology can identify genes that encode proteins with

sequence characteristics, which suggest they are secreted or expressed on the surface of a pathogen. These genes can be isolated (ie the genes are ‘cloned’) and the proteins expressed in recombinant form in appropriate cells in culture. The proteins can Metabolism inhibitor then undergo testing as vaccine antigens in animals, singly or in pools. Those that are most immunogenic, or which stimulate protection in animal models, are selected for further laboratory development and preclinical testing. The technique may also require the testing of a large number of potential vaccine antigens that must be evaluated in a validated testing system, eg using an animal model that predicts how humans will respond. As additional checks, sera from the animal model or infected Autophagy activator humans can be used to test in vitro neutralisation of virulence, ie to authenticate folding of the recombinant

protein, or in passive transfer experiments to show that protection is antibody mediated, ie to define the correlate of immunity/protection. A limitation of the subunit approach is that a cell culture-synthesised protein may not correctly form the three-dimensional structure that it assumes in the host, and may not induce protective antibodies. In addition, subunit vaccines often elicit weaker antibody responses than other types of vaccines, because of the lack of innate defensive triggers that drive the innate immune system. Carbohydrate residues on antigenic proteins selleck products influence antibody binding, however, bacterial expression systems do not usually glycosylate recombinant proteins in a manner comparable

to mammalian cells. Expression systems are, therefore, being continually improved to allow the production of glycoproteins that more accurately resemble a pathogen protein’s native conformation. The characteristics of split and subunit vaccine approaches compared with whole-pathogen approaches are provided in Table 3.2. Improvement of industrial processes and sophisticated analytical methods allow us to take the concept of subunit vaccines a step further. HBV and human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccines are concrete examples of this approach. Specific antigenic proteins can be produced by recombinant DNA technology for viruses such as HBV and HPV that do not grow in cell lines. This approach also optimises the efficiency of the manufacturing process and the purity of the antigen (Figure 3.6). The gene encoding the specific protein of interest can be inserted into an expression system, eg a baculovirus, which is used to infect insect cells, or into yeast cells.