What is the impact of pDC accumulation in the pathogenesis and progression of diseases? As we explain in the following sections, pDC may have either negative or positive effects (Fig. 1). The accumulation Selleck AZD1152 HQPA of pDC contributes to pathogenesis in several viral models and disease settings. pDC infiltration and excessive IFN-I production are hallmarks of psoriasis and SLE 2, 59–64. During psoriasis, pDC accumulate in the skin and produce IFN-I in response

to self-DNA complexed with the antimicrobial peptide LL-37 65. Blocking IFN-I strongly inhibits the T-cell-dependent progression of psoriasis, thus implicating pDC as critical mediators of disease 19. As peripheral blood mononuclear cells from SLE patients have an IFN-α/β signature in the transcriptome that Adriamycin correlates with disease severity 66–69 and pDC infiltrate the skin and secrete IFN-I in response to self-DNA/RNA/immunocomplexes, pDC are often considered to be the culprits in promoting SLE. Additionally, pDC-derived IFN-I has been implicated in the initiation of type I diabetes in NOD mice 46. pDC accumulate in the pancreatic LN and produce IFN-I in response to apoptotic β-cell debris, hence activating DC and autoreactive T cells. Thus, it would appear that pDC, upon activation and IFN-I secretion, aggravate, and even perhaps instigate the diseases mentioned above, although it

remains unclear whether pDC are really the perpetrators. mTOR inhibitor Prolonged pDC activation and secretion of IFN-I have been associated with the progressive loss of CD4+ T cells and the chronic activation of CD8+ T cells in HIV infection 70, 71. Additionally, pDC may participate in HIV pathogenesis by recruiting T cells to sites of HIV replication where they can become infected. pDC preferentially secrete the chemokines CXCL9 (MIG), CXCL10 (IP-10), CCL3 (MIP-1α), CCL4 (MIP-1β) and CCL5 (RANTES) 72, which can attract naïve and activated CD4+ and CD8+ T cells to sites of infection 73, 74. It has been shown that pDC accumulate in the vagina of rhesus macaques that are intravaginally infected with SIV 50. This accumulation resulted in increased levels of

MIP-1β, which attracted activated T cells that are susceptible to SIV infection, facilitating the generation of a local infection focus that can subsequently spread to the draining LN. pDC may also facilitate the recruitment of T cells to the liver during HCV infection. Liver biopsies from patients with HCV revealed infiltrates containing both pDC and T cells 39. Although CTL are critical for eradicating many viral infections, in the case of hepatitis virus, robust CTL responses induce severe liver damage. pDC have been shown to promote tolerance, particularly during cancer. Although activated pDC appear to behave as immunogenic cells, unstimulated or alternatively stimulated pDC can alleviate protective immunogenic responses to tumor cells through the induction of Treg.