Smoking status was ascertained by self-report and not validated with biochemical tests. Although western studies have shown that misclassification of smoking status by using self-report only is very uncommon, limited research on this topic exists for Chinese populations (Caraballo et al., 1998). Cronbach��s alpha of .45 for the nicotine dependence measure in 2004 was low, suggesting low selleck screening library consistency/reliability of this measure; however, Cronbach��s alpha was .66 and .67 in years 2002 and 2003. Furthermore, Cronbach��s alpha scores were acceptably high for the other measures (i.e., depression, hostility, perceived stress) at all waves. Conclusions The high rate of smoking among males in China is a significant challenge that can be overcome by implementing effective policies and programs to prevent smoking onset, reduce relapse, and increase successful cessation.

Males in other Western Pacific (e.g., Indonesia, Thailand) and Southeast Asian countries (e.g., Laos, Malaysia) also have very high rates of smoking. The variables that influenced quitting and maintaining abstinence in the present study may also be important in neighboring countries that are heavily influenced by and have economic and cultural similarities to China. Other variables may be important, however, in nations with cultural or economic differences, such as those that are not experiencing as dramatic economic growth as China. Many approaches to smoking cessation have been found to be effective in Western countries, ranging from population-based interventions to pharmacologic treatments.

Adapting such strategies to China, the world��s leading consumer and producer of tobacco products, can lead to significant reductions in tobacco-related disease in the world��s most populous country. Funding This research was supported by the Transdisciplinary Tobacco Use Research Center (TTURC), funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) (grant AV-951 #P50 CA084735) and the Sidney R. Garfield Endowment. The NIH had no role in survey dissemination, data gathering, data analysis, or the decision to submit for publication. The corresponding author had full access to all the data in the study and had final responsibility for decision to submit for publication. Declaration of Interests We declare that we have no conflicts of interest.
Accumulating evidence has established that youths with minority sexual orientations (e.g., those who identify as lesbian, gay or bisexual [LGB] or experience same-sex attractions and/or relationships) are more likely than heterosexual youths to smoke cigarettes (J. G. Lee, Griffin, & Melvin, 2009) and that negative health effects, such as increased risk for acute respiratory infections, are apparent in young adulthood (Blosnich, Jarrett, & Horn, 2010).