34,35 It is now widely accepted that the vigilance mechanism of caffeine acts via the antagonism of adenosine receptors. The physiology of the adenosinergic transmission has been recently reviewed,36 as well as its implication in sleepwake mechanisms.26 Adenosine, formed by breakdown of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is present both intraand extracellularly,

and the balance is maintained by membrane transporters, but when energy expenditure exceeds energy production, adenosine levels increase in the extracellular space. In humans, adenosine exerts most of its effects through activation of two high-affinity receptors (the A1 coupled to “inhibitory” Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical G1 proteins and the A2A coupled to “stimulatory” Gs protein). A1 receptors are involved in the inhibitory effect of adenosine on the wake-active cholinergic neurons of the basal forebrain, while there are some indications that A2A receptors could influence the dopaminergic control of wake-promoting mechanisms.37 Adenosine Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical may also disinhibit sleep-active

Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical VLPO neurons by removing GABAergic inhibitory inputs, possibly via A1 receptors.27,28 The caffeine-induced increase in vigilance level results from the blockade of A1 and A2A receptors. Accordingly, it is thought that caffeine exerts its effects through two complementary mechanisms: inhibition of wake-promoting cholinergic and dopaminergic influence and disinhibition of sleep-promoting neurons of the VLPO. It thus emerges that there is a potential role of adenosine A1 and A2A receptor antagonists as arousal stimulators and agonists as sleep promoters. Tofacitinib manufacturer Preclinical Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical studies with such compounds have reported promising results,26 but no clinical trials have been published to date.

Since direct adenosine agonists may have marked side effects such as hypotension and bradycardia,36 the use of substances that indirectly modulate the level of endogenous adenosine, such as adenosine uptake inhibitor38 or adenosine kinase inhibitor,39 Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical may be preferable to the use of direct adenosine agonists. Drugs enhancing the activity of wake-promoting neurons Amphetamine-like drugs and modafinil are the two most popular wake-promoting medications used for the treatment of narcolepsy, a Phosphoprotein phosphatase sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness. Amphetamine, methylphenidate, and cocaine are known to act pharmacologically by blocking the reuptake and enhancing the release of noradrenaline, dopamine, and serotonin within the synaptic cleft of monoamine synapses.40 The exact mechanism by which amphetamine-like stimulants induce their wake-promoting effects remains to be elucidated, but there is growing evidence that the dopaminergic system is mostly implicated.