Mol Cancer Res author manuscript in PMC 2009 1 July. Phosphorylation of ATM by Cdk5 signaling mediator of DNA-Sch Regulates the neuronal death and Bo Tian1, 2, Qian Yang1, Limonin 2 and Zixu MAO1, 2.3 1Departments of Pharmacology and Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, 615 Michael Street, Atlanta, GA 30 322, USA 2Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, 615 Michael Street, Atlanta, GA 30 322, USA Abstract The ATM kinase phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase plays a like in coordinating the response to DNA-Sch the ‘confinement controlled Lich of the control point of the cell cycle, DNA repair and apoptosis. ATM mutations cause a spectrum of defects in the range of neurodegeneration, cancer Pr Disposition. However, the mechanism of DNA is Sch Ending ATM activates poorly understood.
We show that Cdk5, activated by DNA-Sch Ending, ATM directly phosphorylates serine 794 in post-mitotic neurons. The phosphorylation of serine 794 and above is for ATM autophosphorylation at serine 1981 is required and activated ATM kinase activity t. Cdk5-ATM signal Masitinib regulates phosphorylation and function of the ATM targets p53 and H2AX. Interruption of the Cdk5 ATM path D Mpft DNA Sch By the return of the neuronal cell cycle and expression of p53 and Bax induced PUMA objectives, protection of neurons from DNA Sch The-induced death. Thus serves to activate Cdk5 by DNA Sch Ending as a critical signal for the reaction of ATM and ATM-regulation of cellular To initiate Ren processes.
DNA Sch Transduced ending signals to activate a key family of phosphoinositide 3-kinase-related kinases, such as ATM, which a number of proteins important for controlled L checkpoints phosphorylated The cellular cycle Ren DNA repair and in case of Besch Ending above the cell’s DNA Owned death.1, 2, 3 As ATM activity is t by the signal DNA-Sch The regulated, is unclear. Earlier studies have shown that activation of ATM autophosphorylation comprises of several serine residues, including normal S19814, 5 The widely accepted model is that autophosphorylation of ATM at S1981 she l St inhibitory homodimer structure, leading to their activation and recruitment to sites of DNA double-strand break 6, but a recently published Ffentlichter report questions the R The S1987, S1981 corresponds to the mouse, in the DNA damage-induced activation of ATM in vivo7.
Unlike the proliferation of cells in which DNA-Sch The generally L St control points The cell cycle, activate postmitotic neurons under conditions of genotoxic stress including normal stimulation of their cell cycle machinery8. This cell cycle reentry leads to neuronal death of postmitotic neurons and inhibiting the activity of t such ectopic cell cycle protects neurons9-12. Studies of emission ATM-/-mice that ATM for p53-mediated apoptosis of postmitotic neurons exposed radiation13 ionizing development, 14 is not required. The suppression of ATM d Mpft 3Correspondence DNA-Sch Should be addressed to the ZM. ZM AUTHOR CONTRIBUTION coordinated to plan the entire project and the original experimental design. T. B. and Q. Y. Experiments were performed. ZM and BT analyzed data and wrote the paper.
Competing financial interests The authors explained Ren, they have no competing financial interests. NIH manuscript authors access Public at Nat Cell Biol author manuscript in PMC 12th October 2009. Ver published in its final form: Nat Cell Biol, 2009, 11: 211 18 �. doi: 10.1038/ncb1829. NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript agent camptothecin-induced cell cycle reentry by postmitotic neurons15 and death. These results establish the r The ATM in DNA-Sch The-induced neuronal death. Cdk5, has a small serine / threonine kinase is an activator p35, but not cell cycle regulated, has been shown to play an R In the neuronal stress response16, 17, 18 Examination of the protein sequence o

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Jones SF, Burris HA III, Dumez H, et al. Phase I accelerated dose escalation, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic study of PF 03814735, an oral aurora kinase inhibitor, in patients with advanced solid tumors: Preliminary results. Journal of Clinical Oncolgy 2008,26:2517. Dar et al. Page 14 Mol Cancer Ther. Author manuscript, available in PMC 2011 February 2. NIH PA Author Manuscript NIH PA Author Manuscript NIH PA Author Manuscript 75. Yang H, He L, Kruk P, Nicosia SV, Cheng JQ. Aurora A induces cell survival and chemoresistance by activation of Akt through a p53 dependent manner in ovarian cancer cells. Int J Cancer 2006,119:2304�?2. Dar et al. Page 15 Mol Cancer Ther. Author manuscript, available in PMC 2011 February 2. NIH PA Author Manuscript NIH PA Author Manuscript NIH PA Author Manuscript Figure 1.
Schematic diagram of Aurora A, B, & C kinase domains. N & C terminal domains contain most of the regulatory sequences. The central domain consists of catalytic kinase domain and activation loop. D Box at the c terminal domain is the destruction box. Brown box Activation loop, Black box destruction box at C terminus, Light green box destruction box at N terminus, Light green box Kinase domain. Dar et al. Page 16 Mol Cancer Ther. Author manuscript, available in PMC 2011 February 2. NIH PA Author Manuscript NIH PA Author Manuscript NIH PA Author Manuscript Figure 2. Overvie

reet, Sacramento, Lenalidomide 404950-80-7 CA 95817. Phone: 1 916 703 0383, FAX: 1 916 703 0367, Publisher,s Disclaimer: This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. NIH Public Access Author Manuscript Neurobiol Dis. Author manuscript, available in PMC 2011 March 1. Published in final edited form as: Neurobiol Dis. 2010 March, 37: 549 557. doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2009.11.013.
NIH PA Author Manuscript NIH PA Author Manuscript NIH PA Author Manuscript of cell cycle re entry in neurons related to pathological conditions has been further Myricetin confirmed in a number of reports, including experiments in primary neuron cultures and animal models of disease including AD, ALS, stroke, traumatic brain injury and cerebral hypoxia ischemia. Furthermore, our recent genomic and bioinformatic studies have consistently placedcell cycle as among the top ranked functional categories for gene transcripts that are altered in rats one day following any of several different types of insults to the central nervous system . These examples demonstrate aberrant cell cycle re entry as a hallmark of CNS diseases with dying neurons, and while cell cycle re entry in more commonly associated with tumor cells, there are very different consequences of this event between these tissues.
In contrast to neurons, when tumor cells re enter the cell cycle, they survive and may continue to proliferate in the presence of an oncogene. For reasons not completely understood, a mature neuron that reenters the cell cycle is neither able to advance to a new G0 quiescent state nor revert to its earlier G0 state. This presents a critical dilemma to the neuron from which death may be an unavoidable, but necessary, outcome for these mature neurons attempting to complete the cell cycle. Since re entry into the cell cycle by neurons has been associated with many diseases and linked inextricably to death, the cell cycle represents a viable target for treatments and therapies, so long as the consequences on other cell types, such as neuroprogenitor cells, are considered.
As a way to describe potential therapeutic targets, we propose the expanded cell cycle one which includes not only the traditional cell cycle proteins, but also the mitogenic molecules and the signaling pathways that interact with them. The expanded cell cycle includes some of the current targets for treating CNS diseases. It provides a composite perspective encompassing a broad range of molecules representing potential targets and thus approaches that can serve as treatments for CNS diseases by sharing a common outcome cell cycle inhibition. A detailed description of the cell cycle and its components follows before we discuss the specific interactions that neurons have with cell cycle proteins.
Classical proteins and regulators of the cell cycle The cell cycle is the series of events that lead to cell replication. In brief, the release of cells from a quiescent state results in their entry into the first gap phase, during which the cells prepare for DNA replication in the synthetic phase. This is followed by the second gap phase and mitosis phase. When cells cease proliferating, either due to the presence of specific anti mitogenic signals, or the absence of pro mitogenic signals, they exit the cycle and enter the G0 quiescent phase. A majority of types of newly divided G0 cells can re enter the cell cycle after passi

onstituents of Withania somnifera Dunal and Centella asiatica Urb., respectively. Both species are recommended as Medhya Rasayana in the ayurvedic traditional Indian medicinal system.39 Various modern scientific studies AZD8931 support the memory enhancing role of W. Patil et al. Page 4 J Nat Prod. Author manuscript, available in PMC 2011 July 23. NIH PA Author Manuscript NIH PA Author Manuscript NIH PA Author Manuscript somnifera and C. asiatica, as has been reported.40,41 Thus, both W. somnifera and C. asiatica, may prove beneficial against AD, where memory and other cognitive functions are severely impaired. Moreover, a crude extract of C. asiatica has been shown to decrease Alevels in a transgenic mouse model of AD.
42 The present study, however, is the first to assess the effects of pure active constituents of these two plants on APP processing pathways and the underlying molecular mechanisms associated with the increased Bergenin 477-90-7 bias towards non amyloidogenic processing of APP. In addition to the increased amyloidogenic processing and/or decreased non amyloidogenic processing of APP, the levels of A may also be increased in the AD brain due to its decreased degradation. IDE, NEP, MMPs, plasmin, and endothelin converting enzymes are some of the major proteolytic enzymes involved in A degradation.43 Growing evidence suggests that defective A degradation may be a central causative factor in the pathogenesis of AD. The genetic deletion or pharmacological inhibition of the A degrading enzymes has been shown to elevate A levels in animal brains significantly.
43 Furthermore, the levels of NEP and IDE proteins are decreased in an age and brain region dependent manner.43,44 Thus, modulation of one or more A degrading enzymes may prove vital in the prevention and treatment of AD. This hypothesis is supported by a recent study, whereby a novel small molecule inhibitor of plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 discovered by Wyeth, which enhances activity of an A degrading enzyme, has been shown to significantly lower plasma/brain A levels and also reverses cognitive deficits in transgenic mouse models of AD.45 In the present study, it was found that 1, but not 2, significantly increased IDE levels in primary rat cortical neurons. As indicated earlier, both 1 and 2 had no significant effects on NEP levels.
The significance of 1 in the up regulation in IDE levels against AD is emphasized by the fact that over expression of IDE by 100% decreases A levels, plaque burden, and associated neuronal death by more than 50%.19 Similarly, a seven fold over expression of NEP is associated with more than a 90% decrease in A levels.19 At present, the underlying mechanism by which 1 and 2 affect the levels of BACE1, ADAM10, and IDE is unclear. The AD brain is characterized by increased oxidative stress46 and the enzymes involved in APP processing and A degradation have been shown to be dependent upon the cellular redox state. Oxidative stress has been demonstrated to increase the expression and activity of BACE1 in NT2 neurons and primary rat cortical neurons, which was accompanied by a proportional elevation of the carboxy terminal fragments of APP.
47,48 Furthermore, both ADAM10 promoter activity and transcription of endogenous ADAM10 have been shown to be increased by treatment with retinoic acid.49 Also, epigallocatechin 3 gallate, from green tea, has been shown to significantly increase ADAM10 maturation.50 EGCG has also been shown to increase the expression levels of both NEP and IDE.51 These data, taken together with the realization that both 1 and 2 possess excellent anti oxidative and antiinflammatory properties52,53, may explain, in part, their effects on BACE1, ADAM10, and IDE levels. However, the lack of an effect of either 1 or 2 on NEP levels and of 2 on IDE le

levels in vehicle, 10 or 30 mg/ kg/d of AS-605240–treated ob/ob mice , and vehicle-treated C57BL/6J mice. Glucose levels during ITT or GTT in vehicle or AS-605240–treated ob/ob mice were determined at the indicated Alvespimycin 467214-21-7 time points after i.p. injection with a bolus of insulin for ITT or glucose for GTT. Immunohistochemical analysis of adipose tissue macrophage. eWAT of ob/ob mice treated with vehicle or AS-605240 were stained with antibody against F4/80. Expression levels of genes encoded macrophage-related protein in eWAT of vehicle or AS-605240–treated ob/ob mice. Serum MCP-1 levels in vehicle or AS-605240–treated ob/ob mice and vehicle-treated C57BL/6J mice.. #P 0.05 for vehicle-treated ob/ob compared with vehicle-treated C57BL/6J mice. *P 0.05 and **P 0.01 for AS-605240–treated ob/ob compared with vehicletreated ob/ob control.
Kobayashi et al. PNAS | April 5, 2011 | vol.108 | no.14 | 5757 MEDICAL SCIENCES Gene Expression Analysis. TRIzol reagent was used to prepare total RNA from tissues. The reverse-transcription reaction was carried out with a high-capacity cDNA reverse transcription kit. Quantitative PCR analyses using TaqMan assays were performed as previously ABT-888 912444-00-9 described. The relative expression levels were normalized by measurement of the amount of cyclophilin in each sample. Histological Analysis. Tissue samples for histology were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde in PBS overnight, and paraffin-embedded sections were prepared. Sections of liver were stained with H&E, and adipose tissues were stained hematoxylin and incubated with anti-F4/80 overnight at 4 C, followed by incubation with the Vectastain Elite ABC Rat IgG Kit and visualization with the ImmPACT DAB Substrate Kit , as previously described.
Adipose Tissue Fractionation and FACS Analysis. Adipose tissue fractionation into the stromal vascular fraction was performed as previously described. Briefly, epididymal adipose tissue pads were minced into fine pieces and centrifuged at 3,000 × g to remove erythrocytes and free leukocytes. Tissues were incubated with 2 mg/mL of collagenase type 2 at 37 C with gentle agitation for 15�?0 min. Digested tissues were filtered through nylon mesh , and the filtrate was centrifuged at 1,200 × g. Pelleted cells were collected as the SVF. For isolation of mRNA, the erythrocytedepleted SVF was resuspended in TRIzol reagent.
For flow cytometric analysis, after removing red blood cells, the SVF was incubated with either labeled monoclonal antibody or isotype control antibody and analyzed by flow cytometry using a FACS Calibur. Data acquisition and analysis were performed using CellQuest Pro software. Propidium iodide was used to exclude dead cells. Plasma MCP-1 and Hepatic Triglyceride Content. Plasma levels for MCP-1 were measured by ELISA. Hepatic triglyceride was extracted from the liver homogenate with Folchsolutioin. An aliquot of the organic phase was collected and resuspended in ethanol containing 1% Triton X-100 and then measured by enzyme-based measurement kits. Bone Marrow Transplantation. For BM transplant studies, bone marrow cells were prepared from the femur and tibia of Pik3cg+/+ and Pik3cg�?�?mice and injected i.v.
into lethally irradiated ob/ob mice or C57BL/6J mice as recipients, as described previously. Treatment with a PI3Kγ Inhibitor. A PI3Kγ selective inhibitor, AS-605240, which was synthesized by Discovery Research Laboratories, Kyorin Pharmaceutical, was used as described previously. Vehicle or AS-605240 was administered intraperitoneally to ob/ob mice twice a day from 6 wk of age. Statistical Analysis. Values of the data are expressed as mean _ SEM. Differences between two groups wer

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WIPO WO2009080705.15552 | pnas/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1009652107 Sun et al. Isoform-Specific Functions of Phosphoinositide 3-Kinases: p110δ but Not p110γ Promotes Optimal Allergic Responses In Vivo1 Khaled Ali*, Montserrat Camps�? Wayne P. Pearce*, Hong Ji�? Thomas Rückle�? Nicolas Kuehn§, Christian Pasquali�? Christian Chabert�? Christian Rommel2,�? and Bart Vanhaesebroeck3,* *Centre for Cell Signalling, Institute of Cancer, Queen Mary U

Lockable End zitierf compatibility available file, see jimmunol be found. 1This work was supported by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases grant U54 AI057153 supported, R21 A1076975, A1007528 T32, ZSTK474 475110-96-4 and the National Institute of General Medical Sciences grant T32 GM007863. 2Address correspondence with Dr. David J. Miller, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, 3560B MSRB II, 1150 W. Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5688. Phone: 763-0565. Fax: 615-5534. milldaviumich. NIH Public Access Author Manuscript J Immunol. Author manuscript, increases available in PMC 15th June 2011. Ver published in its final form, as follows: J Immunol. 15th June 2010, 184: 021 7010 �. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.0904133.
NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript ZSTK474 PI3K inhibitor NIH-PA Author Manuscript introduction of innate immune pathways important answers to the start contr The excitation and pattern recognition receptors of acids, the ligands that bind pathogens or activated dangerassociated molecular models, GE changed Or carbohydrate structures of nucleic. For antiviral innate immune response ligation of these receptors causes a cascade of signal transduction, leading to the production of IFN type I, other cytokines and cellular factors required for the generation of an antiviral micro cell. In addition, the antiviral PRR signaling for activating an appropriate adaptive immune response that is for the m Possible release of several viral infections important.
How to play the PRR-mediated signaling through innate immune system Insert the key into the F Promotion quickly, but non-specific antiviral activity of t, while delivering activation signals to produce st Amplifier specialized immune adaptive responses. There are three general steps innate antiviral immune response: activation, amplification and effector rkung production. Antiviral PRR is signaling by a variety of receptors, including normal transmembrane proteins TLR 2, 3, 4, 7/8 and 9, and introduced cytoplasmic retinoblastoma gene The inducible S Acid-I- Similar receptors RIG-I and melanoma associated with differential gene with 5. TLR3, TLR7 / 8 and TLR9 Recogn Not themselves nucleic Urefragmente of dsRNA and ssRNA hypomethylated CpG DNA, respectively BE, w During TLR4 Recogn t viral glycoproteins, and the viral ligand for TLR2 remains to be identified.
In the cytoplasm, RIG-I binds doppelstr Independent 5 � Triphosphorylierte RNA, homopolymeric RNA motifs and dsRNA shorter than 2 kb L Length, w While MDA5 dsRNA Recogn t complex of more than 2 kb in length L That can be mimicked by the synthetic dsRNA molecule polyinosinicpolycytidylic. Partly because of this ligand specificity T Be Recogn differential PRR And respond to various viral infections. After ligation of PRR signaling through several different adapter proteins, including normal MyD88 TIR Dom containing adapter inducing IFN-ne β, and IFN-promoter stimulator protein 1 β. Mediated adapter-protein complexes activate the transcription factors NF B and κ IFN regulatory factor 3 downstream by several kinases.
Activated B and NF IRF3 κ hen nachtr Possible to obtained, The expression of many genes, the confinement for the assembly of a robust antiviral response, Lich type I IFN, induce either a paracrine or autocrine IFN-stimulated genes function response elements contain in their promoters IFNstimulated. There are several IFN-stimulated genes directly as antiviral effectors, but many are also members of the PRR antiviral pathways that a regulatory mechanism of positive feedback and amplification offers Rkung. The molecular mechanisms of antiviral signaling PRR were primarily using a limited number of cell lines and primary Rzellen cell types, including many models from small rodents and defined professional immune cells such as dendritic cells or macrophages. These studies have revealed significant cell type-specific differences in the kind of anti-viral PRR. For example, dendritic

D SHIP1 � � �� EUR �n CHIR-99021 CT99021 eutrophils were polarized, when suspended. But after the accession of the wild-type neutrophils were polarized with a relative polarity of t> 2.0, w While SHIP1 � � �� EUR �n eutrophils lost polarity t, was flattened, and were surrounded by a well-developed lamellipodia . Consequently, the relative polarity of t to � was reduced 0.0 in SHIP1 � � �� �n eutrophils �. These results indicate that SHIP1 � � �� EUR �n eutrophils behave themselves Similar to wild-type neutrophil suspensions, but on the accession, the polarity is t lost. The broad, flat appearance SHIP1 � � �� � �n eutrophils was when treated with the pan-PI3K inhibitor wortmannin lost, but no effect in the treatment with the PI3K � was observed Specific inhibitor AS-252 424th This indicates that proteins such as fibronectin and ICAM-1, can also be the activation of PI3K � �� � Preparation of E �� PtdInsP3 through the activation of Src-family tyrosine kinases.
Inhibition of PI3K � �� � �u sing isoform-specific inhibitors have shown that PI3K � �� � �� ctivity necessary for the propagation and polarization of neutrophils on a surface Surface coated with fibrinogen. The activation of GPCRs entered Not even the activation of integrins by a mechanism inside out S. In the social Am Be Dictyostelium discoideum, GPCR-mediated Mubritinib signal transduction and the formation of a gradient PtdInsP3 result of chemotaxis to cAMP. PtdInsP3 has announced that its function of proteins, the pleckstrin Homologiedom NEN recruitment exercise to the membrane. PtdInsP3 effectors that lead to the activation of Rac GTPases and F-actin polymerization at the tip.
Although PtdInsP3 is synthesized by PI3K, the level can also regulated by two phosphatases are � �� TEN, a 3-phosphatase, which converts PtdInsP3 PtdInsP2 SHIP1 and converts, a 5-phosphatase, which PtdInsP3 PtdInsP2. The loss of PTEN in Dictyostelium results in the production PtdInsP3 engaged Ngerte F-actin polymerization. Consequently, the H FREQUENCY of lateral pseudopod erh Ht and chemotaxis was ineffective. PTEN disposed at the rear of a cell migration Dictyostelium. PTEN is proposed to be a driving factor in a gradient from � �� osterior PtdInsP3 to ben an inner compass cell Methods to recognize determine the directionality of cells does. It is surprising that the genetic St Tion of PTEN in neutrophils in only minor M Ngeln in cell migration led to a slight increase in reactive Ability to chemokines and upregulation of neutrophil functions.
However, biochemical studies of neutrophil lysates show that a big bore E amount of phosphatase activity t PtdInsP3 after 5-phosphatases. SHIP1 can therefore be an important regulator of neutrophil function PtdInsP3 mediation. In neutrophils, it is reported that SHIP1 essential for chemoattractant-mediated migration of neutrophils and it is believed that the prime Re-inositol phosphatase PtdInsP3 be responsible for the generation of a gradient. Obstruction of SHIP1 to the accumulation of green fluorescent protein-Akt � �� H P3 probe and F-actin polymerization through the cell membrane. Therefore, these neutrophils are extremely flat and show excessive polarization and migration of cells much more slowly.
Although polarization is essential PtdInsP3 w During chemotaxis, the neutrophils that did not PtdInsP3-metabolizing enzyme PI3K � PTEN or SHIP1 or destruction Tion of the layer by wortmannin could PtdInsP3 management system which may need during the chemotaxis. SHIP1 was identified as 5-phosphatase, the dephosphorylated at PtdInsP3 PtdInsP2 InsP4 to P3 and Ins. Lt contains SHIP1 Several Interaktionsdom NEN, Including normal a Src-homology-Dom Ne, a phosphatase inositide Lipiddom Ne, the two versions be NPXY tyrosine phosphorylated, and polyproline region in the C-terminus. SHIP1 as an important negative regulator of the immune system has been established. SHIP1 is known to negatively regulate various cellular Re processes such as phagocytosis, cell migration, degranulation, the survival of cells, proliferation, differentiation and reactive Ability to chemokines. In addition, SHIP1 c

eins involved in cell cycle and apoptosis regulation, and may lead to activation of the NF Brivanib VEGFR inhibitor κB transcription factor by phosphorylating and inactivating the inhibitor κB kinase . 4.1. Targeting MEK for cancer therapy The pivotal role played by the Raf/MEK/ERK module in the physiological regulation of many cellular processes, such as growth, proliferation, differentiation, survival, motility, and angiogenesis, provides the conceptual framework to understand the oncogenic potential of deranged signaling through this MAPK module. Indeed, many cellular oncogenes, such as growth factor receptors and Ras, critically rely on activation of the Raf/ MEK/ERK pathway to induce a transformed phenotype. In addition, members of this MAPK cascade, such as Raf and Mos, have been themselves identified as cellular oncogenes.
Although no naturally occurring MEK or ERK oncogenes have been identified, both proteins can efficiently transform mammalian cells to a neoplastic phenotype when expressed in a constitutively active form and disruption of their activation by pharmacological inhibitors severely impairs the transforming ability of many upstream acting cellular oncogenes. MLN8054 869363-13-3 As a result, constitutive MEK/ERK activation is detected in a significant proportion of a variety of human tumours, including breast, kidney, colon, pancreatic, thyroid and lung cancers, as well as GBM, and has recently emerged as a potential target for anticancer therapies.
Not only is constitutive activation of the MEK/ERK module frequently observed in experimental and human tumours, but rapid ERK inactivation, as opposed to slower decay of the activity of other MAPK families endowed with pro apoptotic activities such as the JNK and p38 families, may also be one of the factors underlying the massive apoptotic response elicited by several signal transduction targeted agents, a phaenomenon referred to asoncogene addiction or oncogenic shock. Indeed, it has been recently suggested that rapid diminution of phospho ERK, AKT, and STAT3/5 and delayed accumulation of the proapoptotic effector phospho p38 MAPK may substantially contribute to cell death following the pharmacologic or genetic inactivation of several oncogenes, such as Src, BCR ABL, and EGFR. These findings support the idea that the MEK/ERK signalling module may constitute a common therapeutic target downstream an array of diverse oncogenic genetic lesions.
Tortora et al. Page 9 Drug Resist Updat. Author manuscript, available in PMC 2008 September 23. NIH PA Author Manuscript NIH PA Author Manuscript NIH PA Author Manuscript As discussed above, the modular nature of the Raf/MEK/ERK cascade becomes less pleiotropic at the crossover point that is regulated by MEK. Indeed, no substrates for MEK have been identified other than ERK. This tight selectivity, coupled with the availability of monoclonal antibodies specific for the dually phosphorylated, active form of ERK, makes MEK inhibition exquisitely amenable to pharmacodynamic evaluation. In fact, phosphorylated ERK is the product of MEK activity and thus its ex vivo detection in tumour tissues could provide a direct measure of in vivo MEK inhibition. At the preclinical/early clinical stage, such pharmacodynamic assays are not only useful for optimizing the design of dosing regimens, but also offer the advantage of being able to correlate anti tumour efficacy with inhibition of the biochemical target. All these reasons make MEK a very attractive target for anticancer drug development