1 OAB significantly impacts health-related quality of life (HRQL). Patients with OAB are more liable to acquire a AZD3965 purchase urinary tract infection and have a higher incidence of falling

accidents, fracture, sleep disorder and depression.2 Overactive bladder greatly affects physical and social functioning, including work, sleep, and sexual and interpersonal relationships.3–5 Because of the symptom of frequency, OAB patients usually reduce water (fluid) intake and limit daily activity to avoid discomfort.6 OAB, especially in patients with urge incontinence, eventually has a negative impact on HRQL. The assessment of OAB is very important for patients and physicians. The severity of OAB and degree of improvement after treatment can be obtained by comprehensive evaluation. However, a consensus of what symptoms or evaluations should be used to define OAB is still lacking.7 Previous studies have used the number of urinary incontinence or episodes of urgency to evaluate the severity of OAB or treatment outcome.8,9 However, Inhibitor Library research buy taking into account the nature and definition of OAB, this approach may not properly reflect a patient’s condition. Urgency is the pivotal symptom, defined by the ICS as “the complaint of a sudden compelling desire to void that is difficult to defer”. Urgency is a subjective symptom. Most normal people without OAB will have the feeling of “urge to void” when their bladder is full; thus, it is

not easy to distinguish it from “pathological” urgency. The ICS therefore suggested that the term “desire to void” is more appropriate for describing normal filling sensation. In addition, the diagnosis of OAB is based on voiding symptoms. Urinary symptoms are not life-threatening and do not affect the physiological function. Regarding OAB affecting the quality of life, the same symptoms may have different effects and impacts on different people; therefore, the needs of patients with OAB and methods of treating them will vary and must be considered. Frequently used assessment methods for OAB Silibinin are

described below. The FVC is an important tool to understand the behavior of voiding. In the FVC, frequency is defined as the number of voids recorded during waking hours, including the last void before sleep and the first void after waking and rising in the morning. Nocturia is the number of voids recorded during a night’s sleep; each void is preceded and followed by sleep.1 The FVC is essential for the differential diagnosis of nocturia, to determine the bladder capacity of patients, and whether they have nocturnal polyuria. The FVC records the status of micturition, but it does not reflect the status of urgency. Therefore, we cannot evaluate the severity of OAB by FVC alone. The FVC could be one of the references for the assessment of OAB. The diagnosis of OAB is based on symptoms, not urodynamic studies. Therefore, urodynamic studies are not required for patients with OAB before treatment is started.

It may be that repeated infection in endemic areas is required for the stimulation of a TH1 response to hookworm; however, a study using repeated experimental infection (50 larvae followed by another 50 larvae 27 months later) showed negligible levels of IFN-γ to hookworm antigen at all time points (22). A further possibility is that other pathogens common in helminth endemic areas (e.g. malaria) may skew immune responses

towards a TH1 phenotype. In mouse models of coinfection with hookworm (Nippostrongylus brasiliensis) and TH1-inducing protozoa or bacteria, although a suppression of helminth-specific TH2 responses has been seen (32–34), to our knowledge, no induction of helminth-specific TH1 MAPK Inhibitor Library chemical structure responses has been reported in mice or humans. Thus, it is possible CP-673451 cell line that reports citing anti-hookworm IFN-γ responses are actually because of endotoxin contamination of the stimulating antigen, particularly given that adult and larval hookworms are derived from the intestine or faecal culture, respectively. This possibility is difficult to exclude without data from uninfected, unexposed control subjects, which is often absent from these studies. For instance, a recent study showed the highest production

of IFN-γ to larval antigens at week 0 of an experimental infection, prior to exposure to the parasite (25). Only a small number of studies have characterized the T- and B-cell immune response to hookworm ex vivo. Two studies show a small decrease in proportions of circulating CD4+ T cells and CD19+ B cells in hookworm-infected individuals from an endemic area (26,35), with increased levels of the activation markers CD69 and HLA-DR on T cells (26). Other studies have shown similar results with other parasitic (36) and bacterial (37,38) Etomidate infections, indicating this is most likely an effect of long-term inflammation, resulting in the activation of T cells and movement of T cells from the circulation to the effector site or draining lymph node. Hookworm infection also causes changes

to the cells of the innate immune system, most obviously blood eosinophilia. In both experimental and endemic infections, eosinophilia is evident within 4 weeks after exposure (7,8,22,25,39,40). Eosinophils from hookworm-infected individuals also show increased expression of activation markers compared to uninfected individuals (41). It is now recognized that eosinophils are competent antigen-presenting cells as well as effector cells, as they have been shown to process and present antigen on MHC class II molecules and stimulate T cells (42). Thus, eosinophils may be important cells in initiating or maintaining the immune response during hookworm infection. Recently, basophils have gained regard as a key cell type in TH2 immune responses.

These data suggested that exogenous administration of CGS21680 could prevent early events associated with the induction of EAMG, for example, events linked to the T-cell compartment (Ag recognition, epitope spreading, and T-cell expansion) [[2]]. However, in established EAMG, once damage to the neuromuscular junction occurred as a consequence of auto-immune memory,

T- and B-cell responses (in combination with complement activation) directed against the AChR, treatment with CGS21680 was much Dasatinib price less effective. A2AR, similar to other Gs-protein-coupled receptors, signals mainly via the adenylate cyclase–cAMP–PKA canonical pathway [[31]]. Recent data have further explained how the A2AR-mediated increase of cAMP may inhibit general T-cell responses such as proliferation [[32]] and cytokine production [[28, 33]]. Therefore the PKA inhibitor (H-89) was included in this assay to verify whether suppression of inflammation mediated by A2AR depended on the cAMP pathway. Furthermore, whether

A2AR-mediated inhibition occurred only during the presence of the A2AR agonist or GDC-0449 mouse if it conferred a permanent alteration to T-cell function was also examined. These results provided evidence that A2AR agonists persistently inhibited the production of anti-AChR IgG antibodies mediated partly as a result of the inhibition of PKA activation (Fig. 4). We next determined the nature of the B cells or CD4+ T cells impacted by CGS21680. First, both proliferation and anti-AChR IgG secretion by B cells was assessed, demonstrating that CGS21680 neither altered the anti-AChR IgG secretion profile nor interfered with B-cell proliferation (Fig. 5). These results were similar to previously published reports [[34]] that demonstrated that B cells responded poorly to A2AR stimulation (determined mafosfamide by measuring cAMP levels in CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T, cells and B cells) following incubation with an A2AR agonist. This led us next to focus on the effect of CGS21680 on CD4+ T-cell function. Although the symptoms

of MG and EAMG are the result of auto-antibodies, CD4+ T cells specific for the target antigen (along with the cytokines secreted) have an important role in the disease development and progression. CD4+ T cells play a role in pathogenesis by driving the synthesis of high-affinity anti-AChR antibodies, as well as secreting proinflammatory cytokines [[6, 8, 9]]. Binding of those antibody subclasses to AChR at the neuromuscular junction triggers complement-mediated destruction of the postsynaptic membrane [[9]]. Here, we demonstrated that the number of Th1 cells and Th2 cells were decreased following A2AR activation (Fig. 6 and 9). This result challenged the hypothesis that lymphocyte-expressed A2AR might shift the Th-cell responses from a Th1 toward a Th2 response.

Hence, MDSCs intricately influence different CD8+ T-cell activation events in vitro, whereby some parameters are suppressed while others are stimulated. The discovery of

tumor-specific antigenic peptides recognized by CD8+ T cells has laid the foundation for immunotherapeutic approaches aimed at maximizing cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) mediated eradication of cancer cells. The optimization of such therapies requires a thorough knowledge of the mechanisms regulating CTL induction and activity and of the countermeasures taken by tumors to avoid destruction. Naive CD8+ T cells constantly sample APCs in the secondary lymphoid organs. As a function of this activity, naive T cells express low levels of CD44 and high levels of the homing receptor CD62L, ensuring entry Sorafenib into LNs [1]. Upon activation at these sites, a series of events is initiated that dramatically alters the molecular repertoire of CD8+ T cells, enabling these cells to proliferate, migrate, and acquire effector functions [2]. Importantly, distinct features of CTL activation are obtained in different phases of the activation process and are not necessarily interdependent [3, 4]. Thus, a brief DC-T-cell encounter is sufficient to Temozolomide upregulate the early activation markers CD44 and CD69, but longer stable contacts are needed to initiate IL-2 and IFN-γ secretion and the abundant expression of activation markers (including CD25, generating

a high-affinity trimeric IL-2R). Finally, only upon dissociation from the DC, CD8+ T cells start to proliferate vigorously [3]. Cell-fate decisions in effector and memory CD8+ T-cell differentiation are regulated by the strength and duration of IL-2 signals during the primary activation [5, 6], and the expression of the transcription factor T-bet [5, 7]. Ultimately, cytotoxicity is the main function of effector CD8+ T cells, and is predominantly regulated at the level of the cytotoxic granule content rather than the process of degranulation itself [8]. However, immunoregulatory cell types may mafosfamide interfere with distinct aspects of CD8+ T-cell differentiation. For example,

CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells inhibit granule exocytosis without interfering with normal effector differentiation [9]. Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), which consist of an immature monocytic CD11b+CD115+Ly6G−Ly6Chigh (monocytic (MO)-MDSC) and granulocytic CD11b+CD115−Ly6G+Ly6Cint (polymorphonuclear (PMN)-MDSC) population [10-13], also hamper T-cell functions during various pathologies, including cancer [14], infections [15], and transplantation [16]. These cells expand from bone marrow (BM) progenitors under the influence of hematopoietic growth factors and inflammatory cytokines [17] and can deploy a variety of mechanisms for T-cell suppression [18], whereby the spleen appears to be an important site of action in tumor-bearers [19].

Furthermore, it was demonstrated via retrospective questionnaire-based epidemiology that those patients who are more passive (thus less active) have an earlier age of HD onset [39]. This therefore provides a striking example of a discovery in an animal model that has led directly see more to successful studies in patients, strongly supporting the validity of these mouse models of HD and the clinical relevance of such environmental manipulations in preclinical models.

Various experimental approaches have been taken to establish how EE might be of benefit to animal models of HD, with implications for understanding how the disease might be delayed or brain repair strategies implemented. The original study revealed that EE of R6/1 XL184 HD mice from 4 weeks of age (weaning) delayed onset of motor deficits and ameliorated the loss of cerebral

volume surrounding the striatum [8]. Subsequently, it was demonstrated that this therapeutic effect of EE in R6/1 HD mice was associated with amelioration of molecular deficits involving brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and, to a lesser extent, dopamine- and cAMP-regulated phosphoprotein 32 kDa (DARPP-32) [40,41]. Further beneficial effects in R6/1 HD mice have been demonstrated on cannabinoid CB1 receptor [42], post-synaptic density protein 95 kDa (PSD-95) [36], serotonergic system deficits [10,43] and hippocampal neurogenesis [44], neuronal morphology and dendritic spines [45,46]. Furthermore, recent findings demonstrate that EE can

even correct adrenal dysfunction in HD mice, suggesting previously unsuspected peripheral effects of EE [47]. Subsequent studies have demonstrated that increased voluntary physical exercise (wheel running) also has beneficial effects in R6/1 HD mice [48–50], although the effects observed are less 17-DMAG (Alvespimycin) HCl dramatic than those reported for EE. This has been replicated in the R6/1 mice [51] and, using the rotarod for motor training, in the R6/2 HD mice [52], although the adult hippocampal neurogenesis deficit in these mice was not rescued by access to running wheels [53]. The only study not to show beneficial behavioural effects of exercise in an animal model of HD involved the N171-81Q mice [54], in which expression of the N-terminal huntingtin protein fragment is driven by a prion promoter. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia and involves neurodegeneration that results from both genetic and environmental factors. AD can be classified into sporadic and familial forms, based on heritability. Familial AD is usually associated with high penetrance of a single gene mutation, notably in the genes encoding amyloid precursor protein and presenilins, and early age of onset [55]. The genetics of sporadic (late onset) AD, by far the most common form, appears to be complex and polygenic, with polymorphisms in apolipoprotein E (ApoE) and many other genes implicated in disease risk.

Complete data set for each microarray experiment was lodged in the Gene Expression Omnibus public repository at NCBI (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/) (accession number GSE6863). Validation of a subset of randomly selected genes was carried out by qRT-PCR. HRE consensus Atezolizumab chemical structure elements consisting of a 4nt core (CGTG) flanked by degenerated sequences ((T|G|C)(A|G)(CGTG)(C|G|A)(G|C|T)(G|T|C)(C|T|G)) were mapped in the promoter regions of genes represented in the chip, as detailed [14]. Real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) was performed on a 7500 Real Time PCR System (Applied), using SYBR Green PCR Master Mix and sense/antisense oligonucleotide primers designed using Primer-3

software from sequences in the GenBank and obtained from TIBMolbiol (Genova) or from Quiagen (RSP18), as detailed [36]. Expression data were normalized on the values obtained in parallel for three reference genes check details (ARPC1B, RPS18, RPS19), selected among those not affected by hypoxia in the Affymetrix analysis, using the Bestkeeper software, and relative expression values were calculated using Q-gene software, as detailed [23, 24]. Twelve-well flat-bottom tissue culture plates (Corning Life Sciences) precoated with 10 μg/mL of agonist anti-TREM-1 mAb (R&D Systems, containing less than 0.1 EU per 1 μg of the antibody by the LAL method), control HLA-I (Serotec), irrelevant

isotype-matched Ab, or left uncoated were incubated overnight at 37°C before seeding 8 × 105 H-iDCs/well/mL of fresh RPMI 1640 without cytokines. Plates were briefly spun at 130 g to engage TREM-1. After 24 h stimulation under hypoxic conditions, supernatants were harvested by centrifugation and tested for cytokine/chemokine content by ELISA and H-iDCs were used to stimulate allogeneic T cells. T cells were purified by negative selection from peripheral blood mononuclear cells using a PanT kit (Miltenyi Biotec). Total of 1 × 106/mL T cells were cultured with allogeneic H-iDCs previously triggered with anti-TREM-1 mAb or control HLA-I at a 20:1 T:DC ratio. After 4 days, supernatants were collected

to measure released cytokines by ELISA. To assess proliferation, T cells were pulsed with 1 μCi of 3H-thymidine (Perkin Elmer) for a further 16 h culture, and 3H-thymidine incorporation was quantified Fludarabine in vivo using a TopCount microplates scintillation counter (Canberra Packard). All tests were performed in triplicate. Data are expressed as cpm ×10−3. Conditioned medium (CM) from monocyte-derived iDCs was replaced on day 3 of generation with fresh medium supplemented with cytokines for 24 h, both under normoxic and hypoxic conditions. On day 4, CM were collected, and tested for soluble (s)TREM-1 content by ELISA (R&D Systems). Secreted TNF-α, IL-12, CXCL8, IL-1β, CCL-5, CCL-17, and OPN were measured in the supernatants from iDCs triggered with anti-TREM-1 mAb or control mAbs, whereas IFN-γ, IL-17, IL-4, and IL-10 were quantified in the supernatants of T:DCs cocultures by specific ELISA (R&D Systems).

© 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Microsurgery, 2014. “
“In this article,we revisited the anatomy of the distal perforator of the descending genicular artery (DGA) and report the clinical application of its perforator propeller flap in the reconstruction of soft tissue defects around the knee. Forty fresh human

lower limbs were dissected to redefine the anatomy of the branches of the DGA and their perforators and the anatomical landmarks for clinical applications. Five patients underwent “propeller” distal anteromedial thigh (AMT) flaps based on DGA perforators for the reconstruction of post-traumatic (n = 4) Enzalutamide and post-oncologic (n = 1) soft tissue defects occurring near the knee with a size ranging from 4.8 cm × 6.2 cm to 10.5 cm × 18.2 cm. A constant cutaneous perforator of the osteoarticular branch (OAB) of the learn more DGA was found in the distal AMT fossa with a mean caliber of 1.2 ± 0.4 mm. It arose 9.4 ± 3.1 cm distally to the origin of the OAB and 4.0 ± 0.4 cm above the knee joint. The size of the harvested flaps ranged from 6.0 cm × 7.1 cm to 11.0 cm × 20.1 cm. All the flaps healed uneventfully at a mean period of 7.4 months. All the patients regained full range motion of the knee-joint. Our study provided evidence of the vascular supply and the clinical application of the distal AMT flap based on a constant

perforator arising from the OAB of the DGA. This flap may be a versatile alternative for the reconstruction of the defects around the knee because of its consistent vascular pedicle, pliability and thinness, adequate retrograde perfusion, and the possible direct suture of the donor site. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Microsurgery, 2014. “
“Background: Three-dimensional computed tomographic angiography (3D CTA) can be used preoperatively to evaluate the course and caliber of perforating blood vessels for abdominal free-flap breast reconstruction. For postmastectomy breast reconstruction, many women inquire whether the abdominal tissue volume will match that of the breast to be removed. Therefore, our

goal was to estimate preoperative volume and weight of the proposed flap and compare them with the actual volume and weight to determine if diagnostic imaging can accurately identify the amount isometheptene of tissue that could potentially to be harvested. Methods: Preoperative 3D CTA was performed in 15 patients, who underwent breast reconstruction using the deep inferior epigastric artery perforator flap. Before each angiogram, stereotactic fiducials were placed on the planned flap outline. The radiologist reviewed each preoperative angiogram to estimate the volume, and thus, weight of the flap. These estimated weights were compared with the actual intraoperative weights. Results: The average estimated weight was 99.7% of the actual weight.

Mr RS observed that he liked his beer and smokes too much and he would decline dialysis. Over the next 4 years Mr RS attended appointments with his nephrologist and the palliative care team. During this

time he was admitted to hospital eight times, for symptom control, hot food and contact with the nursing team. The social worker adjusted living accommodation as Mr RS’s frailty increased. The last days of Mr RS were in a religious hospice at his specific request. In this vignette, the patient was well selleck known to the renal team for many years allowing time for discussions with his nephrologist about what was important in his life. This allowed management of his symptoms, acknowledgement and acceptance of his wish not to dialyse and ensuring that he was able to die in his place of choice. This

case also demonstrates that age should not be seen as an issue. This was a patient who engaged with the team, expressed his wishes and was treated well. His age of 59 was not a deterrent to this pathway. “
“Aim:  The aim of this study was to determine whether ankle-brachial index (ABI) predicts the rate of decline of residual renal function (RRF) in peritoneal dialysis (PD) patients. Previous studies demonstrated the importance of loss of RRF in predicting all-cause risk and cardiovascular mortality in PD patients. It is also

known that patients with a low ABI value have a greater risk for deteriorating Target Selective Inhibitor Library high throughput renal function in the general population. The relationship between ABI and the declining rate of RRF in PD patients with an additional dialysis-specific risk factor is uncertain. Methods:  Seventy-four PD patients with RRF of more than 1 mL/min per 1.73 m2 were analyzed. ABI was used as the surrogate measure of pre-existing cardiovascular disease and atherosclerosis burden to further determine the outcome of RRF in this study. The slope of decline of RRF was used to determine the selleck chemicals outcome. Results:  Based on the multivariate analysis, only ABI (P < 0.001), diabetes (P = 0.02) and baseline RRF (P = 0.009) independently predicted a faster decline in RRF. A stepwise multiple linear regression analysis demonstrated that ABI was an independent predictor for the slope of decline of RRF (P < 0.001). Conclusion:  A low ABI is an independent predictor of not only the known atherosclerotic events, but also of the rate of decline of RRF over time in PD patients. "
“Decision-making in clinical practice is complex and getting more complex. There are a large range of alternative actions possible, all with different consequences and trade-offs. The complexity of medical decision-making is best illustrated using a clinical scenario.

In conclusion, IRE1α appears to mediate early processes in B cell maturation, particularly in connection with VDJ rearrangement [91] [92]. To evaluate the role of IRE1α in plasma cell differentiation, Zhang and collaborators used IRE1Α dominant-negative mutants [91]. B cells

expressing RNAse- or kinase- dominant-negative mutants of IRE1α, or cells lacking the intracytoplasmic tail were unable to secrete immunoglobulins. When these cells were transduced with XBP-1s and stimulated with LPS, immunoglobulin secretion was restored in the RNAse- or kinase- dominant-negative mutants expressing cells. In contrast, the cells lacking the cytoplasmic tail of IRE1α did not restored immunoglobulin secretion when transduced with XBP-1s. Thus, IRE1α cytoplasmic Cabozantinib region have another role in addition to its catalytic activity in antibody production, perhaps acting as a scaffold for other proteins [91]. XBP-1 conditional knockout mice (XBP1flox/floxCD19cre/+) were generated to answer the question of whether XBP-1 altered the formation of memory B cells. XBP-1-deficient B cells were able to differentiate into post-GC memory B cells (IgDloB220+CD138−) and preplasma memory B cells (IgDloB220loCD79b+CD138−) in vivo, but no plasma cell was encountered in these mice [93]. Interestingly, XBP1flox/floxCD19cre/+ mice were protected against systemic

lupus erythematosus [59, 93]. Murine splenic B cells and I.29 B cell lymphoma were stimulated with LPS or treated with tunicamycin, followed by chromatin precipitation. XBP-1 was found bound to the ERDJ3 promoter in association with enhanced find more ERDJ3 transcription [94]. ERdj3 is a co-chaperone that associates with BiP/IgH complexes [20]. Furthermore, XBP-1 indirectly regulates IgH expression by controlling transcription of OBF1, which codes for a specific IgH transcriptional co-activator. XBP-1 binds to the OBF1 promoter, possibly through an ACGT/C sequence found in human and mice OBF1 promoters [94]. These are

the first evidences that demonstrate XBP-1 acting directly on target gene promoter during plasma cell differentiation [20, 94]. During the plasmacytic differentiation programme the PERK branch of the UPR and its downstream targets are silenced [91, 95, 96]. Two independent studies provided evidences that the IRE1/XBP-1, but not PERK/eIF2α, from axis of UPR was activated in B lymphocytes after LPS treatment [91, 95]. Interestingly, B lymphocyte maturation occurred normally in PERK-deficient animals and their B cells could differentiate into plasma cells and secrete antibodies [95]. A third study showed that under LPS induced differentiation, I.29 μ+ B cell line activated IRE1α and consequently spliced XBP-1 mRNA at early phases. PERK was partially phosphorylated, but the LPS-elicited PERK activation was insufficient to phosphorylate eIF2α and to induce GADD34 and CHOP, downstream events of PERK activation. Curiously, pretreatment of I.

Several genes responsible for epilepsy-associated MCDs have been identified over the past two decades (Table 5),[33, 48] and the functions of these genes have been

intensively studied, mostly in transgenic or knockout mice, allowing for better understanding of the molecular pathomechanisms of each disorder.[48] FCD of Taylor type (T-FCD),[49] a subset of MCDs, has been known to be strongly associated with infantile spasms and medically intractable epilepsy in young children, accounting for 20% of epilepsy patients in some previous reports.[50, KU-60019 mw 51] Surgical resection of epileptogenic lesions has evolved as an efficient strategy in the treatment of patients with T-FCD.[52, 53] The lesion is histologically characterized by cortical laminar disorganization and the presence of dysmorphic neurons with/without characteristic large gemistocytic astrocyte-like “balloon cells (BCs)”, and has been classified in some recent proposals as “severe” FCD in the ULCA classification,[54]

FCD type IIA (without BC)/IIB (with BC) in Palmini’s classification[55] or FCD type IIa (without BC)/IIb (with BC) SCH 900776 concentration in ILAE classification.[56] These histological features are very similar to those seen in cortical tubers of tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC-tubers) (Fig. 6),[48, 57] despite different clinical presentations. Recent evidence has suggested factors significant in the morphogenesis of abnormal cells in dysplastic cortex of TSC-tubers and FCD type IIb, including aberrant expression of cytoskeletal proteins,[58, 59] stem cell markers such as nestin,[60] CD34 class II,[61] neurotrophin receptors,[62] fibroblast growth factor-2[63, 64] and cortical

layer markers,[65] as well as altered mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathways.[66, 67] Some of these studies, at least from the neuropathological point of view, provided supportive evidence that BCs and dysmorphic neurons represent disturbed gliogenesis Fossariinae from matrix cells or radial glia and disturbed maturation of cortical neurons from migrating neuroblasts or intermediate progenitor cells, respectively. These results may also support the “dysmature developmental hypothesis” that epileptogenesis in FCD type II is the consequence of local interactions of dysmature cells having immature cellular and synaptic properties with normal post-natal neurons.[68] The presence of dysplastic oligodendroglial cells has also been suggested in MCDs with BC (TSC-tubers and FCD type IIb).